Acrylamide is a small-molecule organic compound (CH2=CH-CO-NH2) that forms naturally in starchy foods during high-temperature cooking above approximately 120 °C — including frying, baking, roasting, toasting, and deep-frying. It arises primarily through the Maillard reaction between the free amino acid asparagine (naturally present in high concentrations in potatoes and cereals) and reducing sugars (such as glucose and fructose). This reaction is also responsible for the characteristic browning, colour, and flavour development in cooked foods.
Acrylamide is classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a Group 2A probable human carcinogen and by EFSA (2015 opinion) as a compound that potentially increases the risk of cancer in all age groups. It is genotoxic and acts as a direct-acting mutagen through its reactive metabolite glycidamide. No safe exposure level can be established below which risk is zero. The EU therefore applies the ALARA principle (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) — requiring food business operators to implement mitigation measures without setting fixed binding maximum levels.
The highest acrylamide concentrations are found in fried potato products (crisps, French fries), roasted coffee, fine bakery wares, breakfast cereals, and cereal-based infant foods. Ovalab’s contaminants testing service provides validated quantitative acrylamide analysis supporting EU benchmark level compliance under Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/2158.
Analytical Methods
- LC-MS/MS (Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry) — Primary reference method for acrylamide determination in food. Typically uses isotope-labelled acrylamide-d3 as an internal standard (isotope dilution method) for high accuracy and precision. Capable of detecting acrylamide at concentrations <10 µg/kg. Applicable to all food matrices including complex matrices such as coffee and infant food.
- GC-MS/MS with Bromination (after derivatization) — Alternative method where acrylamide is derivatized to 2-bromopropanamide before gas chromatographic separation. Historically used before LC-MS/MS became standard. Still applied in some laboratories as an alternative to LC-MS/MS.
- HPLC-UV — Lower-cost alternative for less complex matrices; sensitivity limited by UV absorption of acrylamide at 200 nm. Rarely used for compliance testing due to inferior sensitivity and selectivity compared to LC-MS/MS.
- Sample Preparation: SPE or QuEChERS Clean-up — Acrylamide is extracted from food with water, followed by solid-phase extraction (SPE) clean-up using commercial Oasis HLB or similar cartridges to remove matrix co-extractives prior to LC-MS/MS analysis. For fatty matrices, an additional defatting step is required.
EU Regulatory Framework
Unlike most food contaminants, acrylamide is not regulated by binding maximum residue levels. Instead, the EU has adopted a risk management approach based on benchmark levels and mandatory mitigation measures under Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/2158 (applicable since 11 April 2018).
Benchmark levels are performance indicators for the effectiveness of mitigation measures (ALARA principle). They are not legal maximum levels; exceeding a benchmark level does not automatically trigger sanctions but requires food business operators (FBOs) to review their production processes. Selected benchmark levels from Annex IV of Regulation (EU) 2017/2158:
| Food product | Benchmark level (µg/kg) |
|---|---|
| French fries and other cut deep-fried potato products | 500 |
| Potato crisps, snacks, crackers, and comparable potato-based products | 750 |
| Soft bread | 50 |
| Toasted bread and similar products | 100 |
| Breakfast cereals (except porridge) | 150–300 |
| Fine bakery wares (biscuits, rusks, etc.) | 300–800 |
| Roasted coffee | 400 |
| Instant (soluble) coffee | 850 |
| Coffee substitutes (cereals and chicory) | 500–4,000 |
| Cereal-based baby foods for infants and young children | 40–150 |
FBOs must implement the mitigation measures specified in Annexes II and III of Regulation (EU) 2017/2158 and monitor finished product acrylamide levels. Analytical performance criteria are specified in the regulation’s Annex I; method guidance is provided by the Commission’s guidance document (SANTE/11979/2019). All compliance testing should be performed by ISO/IEC 17025 accredited laboratories.
Frequently Asked Questions
How does acrylamide form in food?
Acrylamide forms through the Maillard reaction between the amino acid asparagine (naturally abundant in potatoes and cereals) and reducing sugars (glucose, fructose) at temperatures above approximately 120°C. This reaction occurs during frying, baking, roasting, toasting, and deep-frying. The characteristic brown colour and toasted flavour of cooked foods are products of the same Maillard reaction. Acrylamide does not form from protein or lipid fractions and is not produced in boiled or steamed foods.
Is acrylamide in food regulated by maximum levels in the EU?
No. Unlike most contaminants, acrylamide has no legally binding maximum residue level (MRL) in the EU. Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/2158 establishes benchmark levels — performance indicators for the effectiveness of mitigation measures under the ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) principle. Exceeding a benchmark level does not automatically trigger legal sanctions but requires food business operators to review their mitigation processes. EFSA has concluded that no safe exposure threshold can be established for acrylamide.
Which foods contain the highest amounts of acrylamide?
The highest acrylamide concentrations are typically found in: potato crisps (benchmark 750 µg/kg), coffee substitutes (up to 4,000 µg/kg for chicory-based products), fine bakery wares such as biscuits and rusks (up to 800 µg/kg), instant coffee (benchmark 850 µg/kg), French fries (benchmark 500 µg/kg), and roasted coffee (benchmark 400 µg/kg). Cereal-based baby foods have the strictest benchmarks (40–150 µg/kg) due to infant vulnerability.
How can acrylamide levels in food be reduced?
Mitigation strategies specified in Regulation (EU) 2017/2158 include: (1) reducing asparagine content in raw materials through variety selection or asparaginase enzyme treatment; (2) reducing sugar content in potatoes through storage management and reconditioning; (3) optimizing processing parameters — lower cooking temperature, shorter cooking time, avoiding over-browning; (4) pH adjustment (acidic conditions reduce Maillard reaction rate); (5) product reformulation (partial replacement of problem ingredients). The “Golden Rule” from EFSA: aim for a golden-yellow colour, avoid dark brown when frying or baking.
What analytical method is used to measure acrylamide in food?
LC-MS/MS with isotope dilution (using deuterium-labelled acrylamide-d3 as internal standard) is the reference method for acrylamide determination in food, providing the highest accuracy and precision. Food is extracted with water, cleaned up by SPE, and analysed by LC-MS/MS. Detection limits are typically <10 µg/kg. Analytical performance criteria are specified in Annex I of Regulation (EU) 2017/2158. Compliance testing must be performed by ISO/IEC 17025 accredited laboratories.